Cigarettes are a slim cylindrical tube filled with combustible substance, mainly tobacco, wrapped in thin paper for smoking. Upon being lit at one end, the cigarette smokes and releases smoke that contains over 4,000 chemical substances like nicotine, tar, arsenic, lead, and carbon monoxide (Teresa W. Wang et al., 2018). In the 21st century, cigarettes evolved from conventional tobacco cigarettes to electronic cigarettes, or simply referred to as e-cigarettes or vapes, which provide nicotine in aerosol instead of through burning. Nevertheless, these 2 categories remain widely used by people today.
Nowadays, our society has considered smoking as a common practice, particularly among Muslim teenagers. According to data from the Indonesia Ministry of Health 2024, the expected number of active smokers in Indonesia was 70 million in 2023, with 7.4% of them being between the ages of 10 and 18. Additionally, according to data from the Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2023, Indonesia has the highest smoking rates in Southeast Asia.
This rising prevalence of smoking represents a troubling social and health issue, such a lamentable phenomenon for Indonesia as a Muslim-majority country. Because through an Islamic perspective, scholars have reached an agreement that smoking is haram (forbidden). This decision is based on the hadith of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessing be upon him), who said: “There should be no harming nor reciprocating harm.” (Shaykh Sa’d al-Humayd., 2000). Also, a hadith narrated by Ahmad, the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessing be upon him) who said: "Beware of oppression, for oppression will be darkness upon darkness on the Day of Judgment."(hadith 2578).
However, the question remains: What exactly is the correlation between smoking and these hadith? Many people may wonder why Muslim Scholars classify smoking as haram. To answer this, we must analyze the scientific evidence demonstrating the harmful effects of smoking and how it aligns with Islamic ethical principles.
Immunodeficiency Lungs
Several studies have shown the link between smoking and weakened lung immunity. Researchers from Weill Cornell Medical College discovered that Nicotine, Tar, and Acrolein – chemical molecules present in cigarettes – result in a reduction in cilia height in the airway epithelium of smokers in comparison to non-smokers. Moreover, these cilia are also damaged, which leads to a decrease in beat frequency as a result of reduced mucociliary clearance (Leopold PL et al., 2009).
Cilia length in normal smokers and nonsmokers measured in fixed, paraffin-embedded endobronchial biopsies. (Leopold PL et al., 2009) Cilia play a vital role in removing microbes and debris from the airways, preventing infections. If this happens, lung immune function declines when cilia, often known as the immune agents of the lungs, are damaged. Even “healthy” smokers with normal lung function face a higher risk of respiratory tract infections and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), increasing the respiratory system's vulnerability to disease as a result of weakened cilia.
Imbalance of Oral Microbiome
The mouth (oral cavity) is the first gate of entry to the rest of the body and is place to a complex and diverse community of microorganisms - predominantly bacteria - known as the oral microbiome. Firmicutes, Fusobacteria, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria is some of the identified 12 phyla (Bacteria) that lives in mouth. Even though they’re bacteria, they have a vital role in protecting the stable oral environment, aiding digestion, and preventing dangerous microbes from causing infection.
Relative percentage abundance of phyla in smokers and non-smokers. (Prince, Yvonne et al., 2024) If this environment is disturbed however, it can lead to the development of periodontitis (gum infections) and inflammation. Because as a cigarette is smoked, these toxic chemicals (nicotine and tar) enter the oral cavity and change the surrounding environment by reducing oxygen levels, changing the pH (level of acidity), and preventing adequate production of saliva which can make a dry mouth that allows harmful bacteria to multiply. That’s the reason why smokers have higher levels of harmful bacteria – like Fusobacterium, Campylobacter and Tannerella forsythia – in their mouths as we can see in the picture (Prince, Yvonne et al., 2024), this impact also occurs with the use of e-cigarettes (vapes) according to the early research by Drs. Deepak Saxena and Xin Li from New York University in 2022.
Cancer
Lung cancer is often linked to tobacco smoking and inflammation. The development lung cancer can be triggered by the presence of genetic and epigenetic anomalies in lung tumors that are clinically visible, also Tumor-suppressor genes may become inactive and oncogenes may become active as a result of these anomalies (Walser T et al., 2008).
The results of the experimental study have found clear inflammatory and cytotoxic responses in lung tissues after exposure of bronchoalveolar cells to particulate toxins molecule corresponding to daily smoking of 8 cigarettes (Hurbánková M. et al.). Not only that, Cigarette smoke contains numerous carcinogens, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitrosamines, which are known to cause lung tumors. These carcinogens interact with DNA, leading to genetic mutations, including in the p53 tumor suppressor gene, which plays a critical role in cancer development, which means these carcinogens further leads to lung cancer progression (Gibbons, D. L et al., 2014)
Secondhand dangers
Secondhand smoke means tobacco smoke that is exhaled by smokers or is given off by burning tobacco and is inhaled by persons nearby which expose them to serious health risks. This overlong exposure is linked to life-threatening conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer with non-smokers exposed to secondhand smoke facing a 20% - 30% increased risk (Sun, S. et al., 2007), cardiovascular diseases that including heart attacks and strokes due to damage to blood and vessels arteries, and respiratory infections (e.g., pneumonia, bronchitis).
Even brief exposure can irritate the eyes, throat, and airways, while long-term contact poses irreversible harm. Vulnerable groups like children, pregnant women, and the elderly face heightened risks, including sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and developmental issues in unborn babies.
Overall, smoking is clearly prohibited in Islam due to its health risks, wastefulness, and violation of ethical principles. Scientifically, smoking can lead to severe diseases such as lung cancer, heart disease, and COPD, while secondhand smoke endangers others, especially vulnerable groups like children and pregnant women. Islam emphasizes the preservation of life ("Do not throw yourselves into destruction," Quran 2:195), and protecting others from harm ("No harm or reciprocating harm," Hadith). For Muslim teenagers, quitting or avoiding smoking is essential. This requires learning about the risks of smoking and developing healthy habits such as regular exercise and practicing dhikr. It's also important to seek support from family, friends, and professionals, plus advocating for smoke-free environments. By aligning these efforts with Islamic values and scientific evidence, we can protect our health, fulfill our religious obligations, and encourage positive changes within our communities.
May Allah bless us all and keep us away from doing what He has forbidden, and keep us on the straight path of truth, Amin.
Sources:
Teresa W. Wang et al. "Tobacco Product Use Among Adults — United States, 2017." Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67 (2018): 1225 - 1232. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6744a2.
Leopold PL, O'Mahony MJ, Lian XJ, Tilley AE, Harvey BG, et al. (2009) Smoking Is Associated with Shortened Airway Cilia. PLOS ONE 4(12): e8157. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008157
Lugade AA, Bogner PN, Thatcher TH, Sime PJ, Phipps RP, Thanavala Y. Cigarette smoke exposure exacerbates lung inflammation and compromises immunity to bacterial infection. J Immunol. 2014 Jun 1;192(11):5226-35. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1302584. Epub 2014 Apr 21. PMID: 24752444; PMCID: PMC4066560.
Walser T, Cui X, Yanagawa J, Lee JM, Heinrich E, Lee G, Sharma S, Dubinett SM. Smoking and lung cancer: the role of inflammation. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2008 Dec 1;5(8):811-5. doi: 10.1513/pats.200809-100TH. PMID: 19017734; PMCID: PMC4080902.
Sun, S., Schiller, J. & Gazdar, A. Lung cancer in never smokers — a different disease. Nat Rev Cancer 7, 778–790 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc2190
Štˇepánek, L.; Ševˇcíková, J.; Horáková, D.; Patel, M.S.; Durd’áková, R. Public Health Burden of Secondhand Smoking: Case Reports of Lung Cancer and a Literature Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 13152. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013152
Gibbons, D. L., Byers, L. A., & Kurie, J. M. (2014). Smoking, p53 Mutation, and Lung Cancer. Molecular Cancer Research, 12(1), 3–13. doi:10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-13-0539
Muhammad An nur Al Fiqri | February 1, 2025
Several studies have shown the link between smoking and weakened lung immunity. Researchers from Weill Cornell Medical College found that Acrolein and Tar which are chemical molecules in cigarettes makes cilia height is reduced in the airway epithelium of smokers compared to nonsmokers, and they are also damaged, with a decreased beat frequency as a result of reduced mucociliary clearance
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